ملخص الدرس / الثالثة ثانوي/اللغة الإنجليزية/UNIT 2/Exploring the past

Whether you speak or write, you need to help people make sense of what VOU say by signalling to them how one idea leads on to another.

The words and phrases which have this connecting function are called link words or discourse connectors.

They generally come at the beginning of a sentence. Their most important functions are as follows:

Beginning a list : first, to begin with, to start with, first of all, etc.

E.g. To begin with, I suggest you get yourself a job.

Continuing a list : second (or secondly), next, then, after this, etc.

E.g. Next you look for a convenient place to live in.

Finishing a list: lastly, at long last, finally, eventually, in the end, etc.

E.g. Finally she managed to escape.

Besides, furthermore, moreover, what is more, in addition, etc. are used to reinforce an argument in a situation where a preceding argument is considered insufficient.

E.g. I won't be attending the lecture this afternoon.

I have some work to complete. Besides, the lecturer stammers so much that one can hardly understand what he says.

You can explain a point already made in three ways:

by clarifying its meaning: that is, that is to say (often written i.e.)

by giving a more precise description : namely, viz, in other words, to put it more simply, rather, etc.

by giving an illustration: for example, E.g., for instance, etc. E.g. Cheating at exams, namely asking your classmates to help you, is

punishable.

Comparing: in comparison with, like, likewise, similarly, compared with,

both ... and ..., neither ...nor..., etc. E.g. The doctor advised him to stop smoking. Similarly, he recommended him to eat much less and take plenty of exercise.

Contrasting:

But, however, and yet, while, whereas, unlike, conversely, on the one hand, on the other hand express contrast.

E.g. Living in the country is quite healthy, and yet it can be rather boring at times.

Conceding: Admittedly, despite (the fact that), in spite of the fact that), though, naturally, certainly, of course, nevertheless, this being said, etc. express concession. E.g. I agree with you that work is the key to success, this being said, thereis no reason why you should stay awake all night studying.

Expressing cause/reason: Because, as, since, for, due to, owing to, etc. signal cause or reason. E.g. She has to stay in bed as she is ill.

Can/will….?  →Informal request

Will you come to the party ?

Can you cut my hair like Madonna 

Could/may/would….?→ Formal request

Could you sing that song, please ?

Would you mind….?I/we’d like…..

Would you mind turning off the radio ?

Life stories or biographies are written to teach lessons for life. So when you read or listen to them, you should try to draw the lessons they want to teach you. You should also respond to them by saying whether you like them or not, and why.

There are five major types of discourse in prose texts: descriptive, expository, narrative, argumentative and prescriptive.

As their name indicates, descriptive texts do just that: they describe people, places, things, etc.

Expository texts :explain how things work, and why these things are what they are.

Narrative texts: tell the story of something or someone.

Argumentative texts :are texts which defend points of view.

Prescriptive texts :are texts which give instructions.

Note: There may be more than one type of discourse in the same text.

forms of may and it functions :

in the interrogative form , we use may only for asking permission .

we can't ask questions about possibility with may .instead we can use can, could , might .

can I fail in my exams? 

there is difference between cannot and may not when they are used to speak about possibility .

he can't come to the party.he is in hospital .(I'm sure).

it is not possible that he will come because he is in the hospital.(I'm not sure).

he may not come to the party he is busy.( I'm not sure).

he may come if he is free, but on the other hand he may not if he is still busy .

we can add well or possibly to may .we add well if we are more sure, and possibly if we are less sure.

can I fail in my exams?

Idon't know .you may possibly fail .but on the other hand you may well succeed.

you can use can ,could and may for asking permission .but could I?and May I? are more formal and polite than can I?. 

There are some differences between British English (Br.E) and American English (Am.E) which you ought to be aware of.

Grammar

In American English, the past simple is often used instead of the present perfect to give new information or to announce something that has just happened.

E.g. I lost my umbrella. Can I borrow yours?'

In Am.E the forms I have/I don't have! Do you have ? are more usual than I've got/I haven't got/ Have you got ? E.g.

I have a new computer. Do you have a computer ? (Am.E)

I have got a new computer. Have you got a computer? (Br.E)

Americans say the hospital where the British omit the definite article.

E.g.

The wounded driver was taken to the hospital. (Am.E)

The wounded driver was taken to hospital. (Br.E)

In Am.E, quite means completely whereas it means very in Br.E. Compare:

We can't do anything for him now. He is quite dead.(Am.E)

I'm surprised that you haven't heard of her. She's quite famous in the show business. (Br. E)

Am.E has two past participle forms of get : gotten and got whereas Br.E has only one, got. E.g.

Have you gotten/got the tickets for the concert ? (Am.E)

Have you got the tickets for the concert ? (Br.E)

In Br.E, different is followed by from, but in Am.E it is followed by than.

E.g. • Their car is different than ours. (Am.E)

Their car is different from ours. (Br. E)

In Am.E such verbs as demand, require, insist, suggest, etc are followed by the infinitive without to, whereas they are followed by a should construction in Br.E.

Compare :

They suggested the timetable be changed.(Am. E)

They suggested that the timetable should be changed.(Br.E)